Category: Essay

Energy drinks

Energy drinks

Energy drinks are theoretically designed to re-energize your body and increase your focusing capacity during long days or during low points in your day. Current research on these energy drinks reveals data that may be contradictory or inconclusive. In this paper, address the following:

What do energy drinks do to the body?
How much is too much?
Should the use of energy drinks be regulated?
Should children be allowed to drink energy drinks? Pregnant women? The elderly?

ANSWER

Energy Drinks
Apart from the soft drink beverage industry, energy drink has gained popularity in the recent past. Energy Drinks are a relatively new class of beverages that are caffeinated and sold with a pitched message of improving energy, enhancing athletic performance, concentration, endurance, and weight management. Energy drinks ingredients include “taurine, niacin, pyridoxine, cyanocobalamin (B12), riboflavin (B2), ginseng extract, glucuronolactone, inositol (B8), guarana. Guarana is made up of (caffeine, theobromine, and offline), ephedra, yohimbine, ginkgo biloba, kola nut, theophylline, sugars, vitamins, herbs, and l-carnitine” (Molnar & Somberg, 2015, p. 1457). Averagely, the concentration of caffeine in all energy drinks is usually higher than those found in soft drinks. In most cases, the target market for energy drinks is mainly the young people. To that effect, the number of individuals consuming ED has significantly increased. Globally, Austria leads in the consumption followed by the United Kingdom. It has been established that an individual on average consumes approximately 8.3 liters of ED annually (Higgins, Yarlagadda & Yang (2015).
Some studies have established that consumption of ED is associated with some health effects. One of the adverse impacts of ED is interference with the heart and enhancing blood pressure. Practically, in less than a quarter an hour of consuming an energy drink, caffeine is absorbed in the bloodstream, resulting in increased heart rate and blood pressure (Fletcher, Lacey, Aaron, Kolasa, Occiano & Shah, 2017). In addition to high blood pressure, the consumption of ED has been associated with higher intervals of the time between heartbeats. When the interval is long, it results in arrhythmia, which is an abnormal heart rhythm. According to Higgins, Tuttle & Higgins (2010), this may result in cardiac arrest leading to death. Another problem associated with consumption of ED is addiction. Empirical evidence shows that people become addicted to caffeine and energy drink. Usually, the ED being a stimulant when used for long makes the user dependent on it. As a result, there are possibilities that one might not function properly unless they consume ED. On the same note, uncontrolled consumption and addiction might lead to financial stress since an individual will be spending more funds on buying ED (Fletcher et al., 2017).
Insomnia and type 2 diabetes has been linked to consumption of ED. Regarding the ingredients, ED has been found to have equally high sugar content just like soft drinks such as sodas. The high sugar levels together with caffeine lead to increased weight and insulin sensitivity leading to type 2 diabetes (Higgins, Tuttle & Higgins, 2010). Similarly, energy drinks have been shown to interfere with sleep. Individuals who consume ED to enhance their work efficiency in most cases end up lacking adequate sleep. Usually, sleep is a natural way of ensuring that the human body rests. Eventually, due to insomnia, an individual might exhibit impaired functioning in their daily activities, mainly when ED is not boosting them (Higgins, Yarlagadda & Yang 2015).
With the above negative effects of ED, the questions that arise are how much is too much? Although no single study is conclusive on the safe limits of ED (caffeine) consumption, available data asserts that a healthy adult can take up to 400mg per day. According to Molnar & Somberg (2015), caution is given to pregnant women not to consume more than 200mg per day. Usually, excessive consumption of ED during pregnancy has been shown to result in adversative reproductive outcomes. This is exemplified by the fact that higher level of caffeine results in a prolonged gestational period, pregnancy-induced hypertension, low birth weight, and miscarriage among others. Unfortunately, there are no available data to suggest that there are any safe levels ED to be consumed by children. Looking at the adverse effects associated with ED despite the fact that it enhances energy and alertness, it might not be advisable for the elderly to consume ED as this might worsen their heart condition. However, for those with the healthy condition, it’s recommended that they take at most 200mg of caffeine (Molnar & Somberg, 2015).
Concerning regulation, Higgins, Yarlagadda & Yang (2015), observed that it would be wise to provide the general public with vital information about ED. For instance, the government ought to compel the companies to not only share the ingredients used in manufacturing the ED but also provide health and other related impacts of excessive consumption of ED. More importantly, the sale of ED ought to be restricted to adults to save the children from their adverse effects.
In conclusion, it is apparent that the consumption of energy drink has significantly gone up. Due to caffeine and other ingredients in energy drinks, there are various negative effects of ED to humans. For instance, ED consumption has been linked to cardiac arrest, insomnia and type 2 diabetes among others. Children and adolescents are not supposed to consume ED since there is no study that has established safe amounts for consumption for this group. However, adults can consume 400mg per day while pregnant women can safely take not more than 200mg a day. There is a need for ED to be regulated in order to save lives, especially of children and youths.

References
Fletcher, E., Lacey, S., Aaron, M., Kolasa, M., Occiano, A. & Shah, S. (2017). Randomized controlled trial of high-volume energy drink versus caffeine consumption on ECG and hemodynamic parameters. J Am Heart Assoc., 26:6(5). pii: e004448. doi: 10.1161/JAHA.116.004448.
Higgins, J., Tuttle, T. & Higgins, C. (2010). Energy beverages: Content and safety. Mayo Clin. Proc. 85, 1033–1041.
Higgins, J., Yarlagadda, S. & Yang, B. (2015). Cardiovascular complications of energy drinks. Beverages, 1(2), 104-126.
Molnar, J. & Somberg, C. (2015). Evaluation of the effects of different energy drinks and coffee on endothelial function. Am J Cardiol. 116(9): 1457-60.

Antidepressant medications

Antidepressant medications

It is estimated that more than 20% of the population of the United States suffers from some form of depression, which has its root cause in the nervous system (specifically neurotransmitters and their associated enzymes/activators/inhibitors). In this paper, answer the following questions:

What are the main types of antidepressant medications?
What is are the main mechanisms of action of antidepressant medications?
Are these medications over-prescribed in modern-day society?
Are there alternative strategies to help treat depression?

ANSWER

Introduction
Antidepressants are often used to treat anxiety and depression. These are medical conditions that affect 17–20% of the population. It takes a few months for the clinical effects of antidepressants to be demonstrated, indicating that these drugs induce adaptive changes in the structure of the brain affected by depression and anxiety. It is crucial to understand how antidepressants work to develop shorter-acting and more effective drugs for anxiety and depression treatment.
Mechanisms of action of antidepressants

1. The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis
   HPA axis plays a critical role in organisms’ response to stress, and a hallmark of depression and anxiety is the malfunction of the HPA axis. The hypothalamus secretes corticotropin-releasing hormone under stress condition (Rossby & Sulser, 1997). This hormone, in turn, stimulates the secretion of adrenocorticotrophic hormone from the pituitary. The adrenocorticotrophic hormone then stimulates the release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex.
2. GABAergic system
   The GABA system is another important system in the understanding of depression and anxiety. The GABA neurotransmitter acts on inotropic GABAA, GABAC, and GABAB receptors. Nakamura, (2012), suggested the involvement of GABAergic dysfunction in mood disorders. He based this on studies with valproate; the mood stabilizer, which effectively treats bipolar patients
3. The monoaminergic system
   The first effective antidepressants, tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, noradrenaline augments serotonin levels in the synapse (Nakamura, 2012). This leads to the monoamine hypothesis for the pathology of depression, which showed a deficit in noradrenaline and serotonin in key areas of the affected patient’s brain.
   Main types of antidepressants
   The first modern antidepressants include tricyclic and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and which were developed in the 1950s. MAOIs such as phenelzine are rarely used nowadays because they suddenly increase blood pressure if combined with ingesting a significant amount tyramine amino acid. Tricyclic such as Elavil (amitriptyline) at times cause side effects like weight gain and sedation that people do not like.
   The newer class of antidepressants includes SSRIs such as Zoloft (sertraline) and Prozac (fluoxetine) (Paul, 2001). They work by targeting serotonin receptors and altering levels of this mood-boosting neurotransmitter. Another class is the SNRIs (serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors) -Effexor (venlafaxine), which usually target norepinephrine receptors. There is also Wellbutrin (bupropion), which is thought to work on both norepinephrine and dopamine receptors. Bupropion is mostly used as an augmenting medication in cases of incomplete response to an SSRI.
   Rising use of antidepressants
   According to Nakamura, (2012), it’s between the years 1988 and 2008 that there was a sharp rise in antidepressants in the United States. It is worth noting that women in the age bracket of 40-60 years constituted the largest population that recorded higher rates of using antidepressants. Records reveal that about 11.0% of Americans use the drugs to treat various depressions related disorders compared to approximately 7.0% in 1999. Sadly, evidence reveals that Americans using antidepressants for over 2 years have risen from 3.0% to 6.0% within the same time frame persons (Qureshi1 & Al-Bedah, 2013).
   One of the reasons is the high number of people diagnosed with depression related disorders. Currently, due to various factors and changes in culture, not many individuals can attest to having proper care and support from family members as well as friends. The aging of our population brings about its stresses. Other factors that include social, economic, environmental among others, have been postulated to increase depression cases.
   Additionally, Americans culture tends to desire rapid solutions to problems. For this reason, patients suffering from depression disorder are not willing to spend long periods in therapy instead they prefer drugs. Additionally, the majority of individuals do not understand the difference between sadness and depression confusing the former to the later hence seeking medication for a different problem.
   Interestingly, doctors and nurses (not psychiatrists) are in most cases the ones conducting diagnosis hence prescribing drugs for depression disorders. The problem is that they frequently have only twenty minutes maximum to see each patient. So when someone comes in and says they are not happy with life or not sleeping well, there is typically an inadequate time to make a comprehensive diagnosis. Instead, antidepressants are administered to such persons (Qureshi1 & Al-Bedah, 2013).
   Alternative treatments
   Psychological treatments -They can help a patient change his or her thinking patterns and improves coping skills so that he or she is better equipped to deal with life’s stresses and conflicts (Nierenberg, 2011)
   Exercise-Regular exercise can be effective in treating depression through triggering the growth of new connections and brain cells just like antidepressants do (Qureshi1 & Al-Bedah, 2013).
   Social support- Strong social networks help to reduce isolation, which is a crucial risk factor for depression. One should be in regular contact with friends and family (Qureshi1 & Al-Bedah, 2013).
   Nutrition- According to persons Qureshi1 & Al-Bedah (2013), eating well-balanced diet is crucial for both physical and mental health. Such a diet ensures that apart from keeping mood swings at bay; diseases that can be associated with depression are also minimized.
   Conclusion
   Individuals suffering from anxiety and depression related disorders have been traditionally treated using antidepressants. The drugs induce adaptive changes in the structure of the brain affected by depression and anxiety. The main mechanism of action of antidepressant includes; hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, GABAergic system and the monoaminergic system. Records reveal that there is a rise in the use of these drugs mainly due to increased cases of anxiety ad depression cases, the desire for quick solutions and diagnosis being made by doctors or nurses and not psychiatrists. There are indeed alternative treatment for anxiety and depression disorders and they include; proper dieting, engaging in physical activities, social support as well as psychological treatments
   References
   Nakamura, S. (2012). Antidepressants and morphological plasticity of monoamine neurons. Effects of Antidepressants. Doi: 10.5772/37593
   Nierenberg, A. (2011). Alternatives to antidepressants in treating acute bipolar depression. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72(01), e03. Doi: 10.4088/jcp.9075tx3c
   Paul, A. (2001). Calcium signaling cascades, antidepressants, and major depressive disorders. Antidepressants, 63-79. Doi: 10.1007/978-3-0348-8344-3_5
   Qureshi1, N. & Al-Bedah, A. (2013). Mood disorders and complementary and alternative medicine: A literature review. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 9: 639–658.
   Rossby, P. & Sulser, F. (1997). Antidepressants: Beyond the synapse. Antidepressants, 195-212. Doi: 10.1007/978-1-59259-474-0_11

Cholesterol

Cholesterol

What is Cholesterol?
To which class of biological molecules does cholesterol belong?
What is the difference between HDL and LDL?
What are the medical concerns as well as benefits of high and low levels of LDL and HDL?

GENERAL PRESENTATION

10 points Outstanding; work is distinguished by its completeness, thoroughness, and creativity.

10 points Level of work is best characterized as solid, well thought out and dependable (consistent).

POINTS COVERED

20 points All major and minor criteria are covered and are accurate.

20 points For the written paper, most major and some minor criteria are included. Information is accurate.

VARIETY OF SOURCES

10 points Variety of professional major/classic evidence based sources and lesser professional references.

10 points Primarily from textbooks, but also a few other evidence based professional references.

DEPTH & BREADTH IN DISCUSSION

20 points Information is presented in depth and is accurate.

20 points Discussion centers on some of the points and covers them adequately.

CITATIONS INCLUDED APPROPRIATELY USING APA FORMAT

10 points Multiple and varied citations including primary nursing research articles. Citations format correct. APA style followed consistently.

10 points Cited appropriately primarily from the text, but also a few other references are used. Citation format correct. APA format followed consistently.

IDEA GENERATION & FLOW

20 points Original ideas, those that go beyond the reference material are presented and, where appropriate, discussed in relation to existing knowledge. The writing is clear, logical, and internally consistent.

20 points Some original thinking is evident, though it may not be at the depth or extent seen in �A� work. Writing is clear, logical, and internally consistent.

ANSWER
Cholesterol
Nurses ought to have a detailed understanding of various issues facing the health of mankind. In this case, the issue of cardiovascular diseases is a concern that warrants attention from medical professionals. Closely related to this type of diseases is the concept cholesterol, which must be well understood.
Cholesterol is mainly produced by the liver, it’s a waxy substance also found in various foods, particularly red meat, high fat cheese, butter as well as eggs. Usually, cholesterol molecules are small and predominantly found in the blood and other body tissues. It is worth mentioning that cholesterol belong a group of lipids termed as isoprenoids. According to de Souza et al., (2015), isoprenoids are naturally occurring and is as a result of chemical condensation of isoprene. In terms of composition, isoprenoids constitute a number of biological molecules as follows steroid hormones, bile acid, lipid-soluble vitamins, phytol, plant hormones as well as polyisoprene. In terms its chemical structure, cholesterol is an organic compound I the steroid family with a molecular formula C27H46O. When considered in its pure state, cholesterol is a crystalline substance that is white having neither smell nor taste.
Cholesterol is a necessary in supporting life. Ideally, it forms the cell membrane, synthesizing steroid hormones, bile acids and vitamin D. It’s the role of the liver to synthesize cholesterol releasing it into the blood for circulation. The regulation of cholesterol is accomplished by a special, compensatory system where if the diet consumed has higher cholesterol content, the liver reduces its synthesis (Evans, 2012).
With regards to transportation of cholesterol is blood insoluble and for that matter, it is linked to lipoproteins to facilitate its transportation. There are two types of lipoproteins, which include high-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein. The high-density lipoprotein is also termed as good cholesterol. Ideally, HDL transports the unutilized cholesterol from the cells back to the liver, where it is converted to bile and then excreted from the body (World Health Organization, 2015).
On the other hand, Low-density lipoprotein known as ‘bad’ cholesterol, transports cholesterol from the liver to the body cells as well as tissues. Ultimately, resulting in separating cholesterol from the lipoprotein for utilization by the cells (de Souza et al., 2015).
Apart from the benefits associated with cholesterol, which include building the structure of cell membranes, producing of such as oestrogen, testosterone and adrenal hormones supporting efficient metabolism among others, cholesterol is associated with other health problems. There are risk factors associated with Low-density lipoprotein. LDL means that the excess cholesterol is not taken back to the liver. It is therefore left in the blood veins forming atherosclerotic deposits. In most cases, these deposits usually fatty in nature become thicker and calcified. This eventually results in reducing the size of the blood vessels obstructing the normal flow of blood (World Health Organization, 2015). It has been shown that individuals with higher levels of cholesterol levels are prone to suffer from cardiovascular and brain related infections. This in most cases leads to heart attacks and strokes, leaving affected individuals’ dead or suffer terminal disability. However, it has been established that a healthy HDL cholesterol level may protect against heart attack and stroke. This can be attained by reducing the risk factors associated with LDL, such as engaging in physical exercise regularly, eating a healthy diet low in cholesterol and high in fiber rich in plant steroid. Cutting down on the amount of saturated fat by avoiding food such as cakes and biscuits, fatty meat, butter and full-fat dairy products, food having coconut or palm way goes an extra mile in ensuring one is healthy, reducing the risks associated with LDL (de Souza et al., (2015).
References
de Souza J., et al., (2015). Intake of saturated and trans-unsaturated fatty acids and risk of all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and type 2 diabetes: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. British Medical Association. 351: h3978.
Evans, D. (2012). Cholesterol and saturated fat prevent heart disease – evidence from 101 scientific papers. New York: Grosvenor House Publishing Limited.
World health Organization (2015). Avoiding heart attacks and strokes: Don’t be a victim-protect yourself. Paris: WHO Publications.

Disaster Response- FEMA

Disaster Response- FEMA

The article by Mayer and DeBoiser concludes with this recommendation: �Entirely eliminate certain types of disasters from FEMA’s portfolio� severe storms and tornadoes tend to be localized events that, while causing property damage and even sometimes costing lives, rarely outstrip the abilities of state and local governments to provide recovery and repair relief.� Using the Mayer and DeBoiser article plus other relevant materials from this week�s readings, review both the impact of recent tornadoes in Virginia, FEMA�s decision to deny the request for federal disaster aid and the governor�s subsequent decision to once again appeal the FEMA decision (http://www2.timesdispatch.com/news/2011/may/17/va-will-appeal-denial-us-storm-disaster-assistance-ar-1045283/). (Meola, 2011) You may also wish to review the governor�s appeal to the private sector to donate to Virginia�s disaster recovery
http://www.richmond.com/news/article_b3481999-2bf8-54dd-a4ab-d42c98b27ce5.html
http://www.richmond.com/news/article_061b2047-2aff-588e-be02-af4582414d5c.html
OR this one:
Try this link: http://www.fema.gov/pdf/news/pda/062311_denial_virginia.pdf

Answer

Disaster Response

Disasters such as floods, tornadoes, earthquakes, fires among others strike localities of varying magnitude. It is the responsibility of the government and the communities to come to the aid of those affected. However, the greatest challenge is how resources should be allocated and the responsible agencies to lead in any response initiative. In the United States, the Federal Emergency Management Agency has been responsible for responding to almost every disaster.

In Virginia, about 24 tornadoes hit the state, leaving ten people dead and destruction of property. Regarding residences affected, 149 were destroyed, 100 experienced significant damages, 158 minor damages affecting a total of 737 residences (Meola, 2011). Mayer and DeBoiser (2010) concluded that the federal government had been left to respond to every disaster eve of the magnitude that can be successfully addressed promptly if proper budgets are allocated at the state and county levels. However, if FEMA cannot respond to disasters of a ‘smaller’ magnitude, it’s the local communities that will significantly suffer. Practically, immediate response to save lives and property is costly, but not as expensive as restoring the relevant service such as communication lines, gas, and transport network among others. This is until legislations are passed to classify the categories of disasters to be responded by the local, state or federal government.
FEMA’s decision to deny the request for federal disaster aid will have both long-term and short-term effects. In the short-term, the recovery efforts in the state will be slow if the state does not have an adequate budget allocation. However, in the long-term, the state will prepare well for responding to disaster by allocating more budgets, recruiting qualified personnel and acquiring necessary equipment. The governor’s subsequent decision to once again appeal the FEMA decision might be inconsequential, however, if the appeal was to request FEMA to temporarily support the state in responding to disasters while it is setting up its response department that would be excellent. According to the governor, the immediate response, which has a significant impact, is from the communities, faith-based organizations, private businesses, nonprofit organizations and the private sector (Meola, 2011). They offer acclaimed financial, physical and emotional support, which cannot be provided by the federal government. In essences, the state and the federal government ought to work together in responding to the disaster.

References
Mayer, M. & DeBoiser, M. (2010). Federalizing disasters weakens FEMA–and hurts Americans hit by catastrophes. Retrieved from: https://www.heritage.org/homeland-security/report/federalizing-disasters-weakens-fema-and-hurts-americans-hit-catastrophes
Meola, O. (2011). Va. will appeal the denial of U.S. storm disaster assistance. Retrieved from: http://www.richmond.com/news/article_b3481999-2bf8-54dd-a4ab-d42c98b27ce5.html